Human Variation and Race

The environmental stress I chose is cold climate. By disturbing homeostasis, this environmental stress negatively impacts the survival of humans. It does this by making it uncomfortable for people, and causing harm to their health. Shivering is the first method of trying to maintain homeostasis, but also is uncomfortable. The cooling of body parts can result in cold injuries, including nonfreezing injuries, freezing injuries, and even hypothermia. Vasoconstriction, the narrowing of blood vessels, also occurs which is your body’s natural response to keeping your body warm, but can also cause harm if permanent.

Short Term Adaptation

A short term adaptation that humans use in response to a cold climate is shivering. When your body temperature starts to drop, your body starts to shake uncontrollably to warm it back up. The muscles have spasms which help to generate heat for a short period of time.

Facultative Adaptation

A facultative adaptation that humans use in response to a cold climate is vasoconstriction. Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of blood vessels in the human body. When blood vessels constrict, the flow of blood is restricted, thus retaining body heat.

Developmental Adaptation

A developmental adaptation that humans use in response to a cold climate is body shape and size. Populations that live in cold climates have a tendency to be more round and stout which helps them to keep in their body heat. When more fat is distributed around their mid section, it keeps the vital organs warmer and fat is used as energy to do that.

Cultural Adaptation

A cultural adaptation that humans use in response to a cold climate is clothing. Populations that live in cold climates wear heavy, insulated jackets, pants, hats, scarves, and gloves to keep warm. This is one of the most important and most effective tools in keeping warm.

There are many benefits to studying human variation from this perspective. For example, knowing how different people adapt to cold climates helps us to understand more about them. We can learn how they adapt physically but we can also learn how they adapt emotionally and this is very important. Some people adapt to cold climates better than others, but that is due to evolving in a way to live and survive in that climate. If everyone lived in a cold climate, everyone would be able to adapt to that environment over time. Information from explorations like these can be very useful to us. For example, knowing how vasoconstriction works to keep our body warm will help scientists and those specialized in making clothing designed specifically for cold climates, make clothing that works as efficiently as vasoconstriction does in our bodies when we are cold.

From the adaptations I listed above, you can learn so much about race. Race is defined as, “a local geographic or global human population distinguished as a more or less distinct group by genetically transmitted physical characteristics”. When a group of people have to adapt to their surroundings physically so they can better survive, they become a race. However, it is better to study environmental influences to understand human variation than by the use of race because the differences in the environment directly affect physical change and the way people live. Race is just the group of people that are affected. It is hard to judge human variation by looking at race alone.

Language Post

Conversation with no Symbolic Language

I found this extremely hard! It was really hard to take part in a conversation where you could not speak, only using hand gestures, noises, etc. I did this assignment with my mom and she pretty much had to do all the talking, asking all the questions. I would shake my head or nod my head or shrug my shoulders but it was hard to ask her anything. It was more of a one way conversation where she had to do all the work. After my mom realized I wasn’t asking the questions, and I was only answering the ones she asked me, she asked me only “yes/no” questions so I could answer them with a gesture. It made it much easier on me when she started asking me questions that I could answer by the shaking or nodding of my head.

            The culture that uses the symbolic language would have an advantage over the culture that does not. I’m sure the speaking culture would think it would be odd to speak to a culture that does not use the symbolic culture because, like I said earlier about my mom, it was difficult for her to carry on a conversation with me because there was only so much I could say to her and only so much I could respond to her questions. Even though American Sign Language is a symbolic language, it is not a spoken language and it very difficult to communicate without using words in our society today. When people who realize that individuals cannot use the spoken language, they will almost always change their way of communicating with them by using hand motions and body gestures. That is the same with a different language. When I am at work and someone does not speak English, I have to change the way I speak to them, by pointing or waving, for example.

Conversation with only a Symbolic Language

            I could not last the entire 15 minutes while only using the spoken language without any physical embellishments. I think the fact that I could not change the tone in my voice when I’d say I was excited or happy about something was the hardest. I even had a very hard time not raising my eyebrows or smiling while I talked. My partner in this conversation changed the way she talked as well, after a while talking in the same monotone voice that I was. She eventually just started talking in the same way that I was on her own and probably without knowing she was doing it.

            This experiment really showed me how important it is to be able to express emotion in your voice, use hand, body, and facial expressions and body movements. You really don’t realize how much you use non-spoken language until you cannot use them anymore and it is a lot harder than you think! People who are blind or have difficulty seeing have a hard time determining others’ non-spoken language and that affect the way they communicate with each other. Body language is one of the most important aspects to communication and language. For example, when you cannot see or hear the person communicating to you, you can take what they say the wrong way. This happens a lot through text message or email where you don’t know exactly how they say things and can read it in the wrong way. Language is the most effective if you are able to use spoken language and non-spoken language.

Piltdown Hoax

In the early 1900s in Sussex, England, a piece of skull was dug up in by a laborer. He then passed it on to an amateur archaeologist named Charles Dawson who concluded the skull was very old. Dawson, excited with this find, proceeded on looking for fossils and anything else he could make a discovery with. He paired up with Sir Arthur Smith Woodward and eventually found a piece of a jawbone. However, this jawbone did not look human, but more of an ape jawbone that seemed to fit perfectly with the piece of the human skull he had discovered earlier. This, they though, might be the link to the missing link. Dawson and Woodward became heroes in Britain and their discovery had been termed, “the Piltdown Man”. More discoveries, like teeth, were made which caused more to believe this was a true missing link find. But in 1953, the world found out it was all just a hoax. A man named Kenneth Oakley applied a chemical test on the bones that dated the fossils and concluded that they were not as old as everyone had thought them to be. The teeth had been filed down and just so happened to, by luck, fit the jaw bone. He also concluded the skull was not an ape skull at all, but a skull of possibly an Orangutan. Scientists were in shock! They had been fooled for 40 years.

The biggest human faults that come into play here are the accusations and beliefs of the scientists. Charles Dawson and his fellow scientists that helped him to make these discoveries and no tested to see if this could actually work. Everything seemed to fit together nicely but there were no actual scientific testing that took place. By not forming hypotheses and tested experiments on the fossils and findings, this greatly affected the way the scientific process is performed.

Thanks to Kenneth Oakley, who concluded that the Piltdown Man was a hoax, the scientific process was used correctly. He used a chemical to test to the age of the fossils to find that they were not as ancient as Dawson and other scientists had perceived them to be. Also, in the Natural History Museum, tests revealed the nitrogen content of the fossils and found out the same thing Oakley found; the fossils were much younger than Dawson had perceived them to be. Oakley also gets the credit for finding the jaw to be that of an Orangutan and not that of an ape. “The fossils had been boiled and carefully stained with chemicals to give them an aged look. But the canine tooth, one of the key discoveries, seemed to have been made in a rush. It was crudely filed and colored with paint.” (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/3202_hoax.html)

I do not believe it is possible to remove the human factor from science. There always has to be scientists to make these kinds of discoveries. However, I believe there are ways of preventing human error by being thorough and professional about your work. If Charles Dawson had performed scientific testing, experimenting and hypothesizing, then this mistake could have easily been prevented. He may not have become this big hero but in the end he would not have looked like a fool either.

When you take unverified sources, you can end up believing something that could be totally incorrect. This historical story, like all history, teaches us what happened in the past and how we can learn from it. We must all make sure that everything we read, hear, or see can be proved correct before we believe it. Scientists all over the world learned this as well.

Primates Post

LEMURS:

Lemurs live on the island of Madagascar and the islands around the same area just off the east coast of Africa. Madagascar is full of trees and forests which make the Lemur a forest creature, some living in the tropical forests while others live in dry deciduous forests. A lemur’s appetite consists of berries, fruits, leaves, bark and insects, making Madagascar a prime location and home for these primates. 
Lemurs use vertical clinging and leaping for locomotion. They have strong hands and fingers that help them to cling onto trees and branches and swing through the forest. Their legs are also very muscular allowing them to hop on the forest ground. A few species like the ring-tailed lemurs and brown lemurs are equipped for shuffling on the forest floor but most are not, using the hopping technique to move around. 
With Madagascar made up of mostly all forests, the Lemurs have had to adapt to the abundance of trees and tropical climate. They have done this by not only adapting to the food available to them but by the way they get around. Their hands have grown stronger so they can grasp onto tree branches and their legs have extremely powerful muscles so that when forcefully extending their hind limbs, they can spring on the forest floor. Their environment has greatly impacted the way these creatures have evolved. 
Lemurs, categorized as Stepsirhini or Prosimians, are the most primitive living primates today. They differ from other primates as well, in that their eyes are placed on the front of their head. With Madagascar being made up of mostly all forest, Lemurs have had to adapt to their environment through their use of locomotion. This means they have strong hands for climbing and muscular hind limbs for moving along the forest floor at great speeds and agility. 

SPIDER MONKEY: 

A New World primate, the Spider Monkey, lives in forested regions of Central and South America and most are arboreal which means they never come to the ground. Spider Monkeys live in tropical rain forests in the canopies high above the ground, finding food in the tree tops like nuts, leaves, and fruit.

Since the Spider Monkey lives in the trees, it makes sense that they are built for climbing and hanging. They have long lanky arms and tails they use for hanging and reaching from branch to branch in the forest canopy. Although they have no thumbs, they have a powerful grip for climbing and being able to hang on tight to their surroundings. Spider Monkeys can be considered “semibrachiators” since they use a combination of some arm swinging and leaping. 
The Spider Monkey’s use of locomotion has adapted due to its environment and surroundings. They are built with long tails for balance and long arms for reaching for branches. This is because these types of primates live in the canopy of the tropical rain forests and never actually use all four limbs for support or “walking” on the ground. Because the Spider Monkey does not have a thumb, this could mean that it evolved due to the fact it was not necessary to have in the environment it lives in. 
Spider Monkeys, categorized as New World monkeys or Platyrrhini, are built to be high above the ground living in the Central and South American regions. They live in social groups and flat, broad, outward-facing noses as compared to Old World Monkeys which have narrower noses with downward facing nostrils. Spider monkeys are built for climbing and “hanging out” in trees all day and have adapted and evolved due to the environment they live in today.

BABOON: 

Baboons live primarily in East Africa, Kenya, and Tanzania. Being in Africa and dry climates, the Baboon can survive without water for a decent amount of time, licking the dew off its fur if needed. Baboons are equipped for desert land with scarce trees and vegetation which allows them to survive and move along the ground.

The way the baboon is built enables it to walk on all four limbs with its fingers bent forward and tail up in a curve. Baboons, such as Savanna baboons, walk along the desert floor where they spend a majority of the time feeding, grooming and sleeping. Baboons are considered terrestrial quadrupeds, meaning their limbs are approximately the same length, giving them mobility on all four limbs. 
While always being on the ground and having to get around, the Baboon has had to adapt to the environment. This means the Baboon doesn’t need a strong grip for holding onto trees, but more of strong, sturdy hands for putting a tremendous amount of weight onto. Because the baboon is constantly on the ground, its skeletal system is designed for them to sit and an area of skin on their buttocks forms as well. 
Baboons are primates made for walking the ground of the earth. They travel in packs with their “families” while grooming themselves and each other, finding food, and sleeping. They have evolved, adapting to their environment and their skeletal system is made for being hunched over on all fours and walking like a dog or cat. In the kind of environment they live in, this is the best kind of locomotion for them.

GIBBON: 

Gibbons are found in rain forests of South, East, and Southeast Asia. They can be found in a majority of other countries as well and are usually considered endangered by many countries. These primates enjoy the lush, wet weather of the rain forests.

The Gibbon’s main use of locomotion is brachiation where they swing using their extremely long arms from tree to tree and are considered one of the world’s greatest acrobats. “Their arms are so long that when they’re on the ground they have to walk bipedally with their arms raised to the side”-pg. 163. Their fingers are permanently curved, they have short thumbs and their shoulders are very muscular; all pros for swinging in the trees. The Gibbon also has a talent to be able to eat while doing all of this. 
By living in the trees, the Gibbon has had to adapt to be able to move and survive. Doing this all while feeding is also something the Gibbon had to have evolved to do. Its arms had to have become longer and stronger to be able to swing with one arm and hang while performing other tasks. 
Gibbons are more dedicated to using their arms to swing from branch to branch than any other primate and are considered hominoids. Hominoids are a superfamily consisting of both apes and humans. Gibbons have evolved over time so they could survive in their environment, hanging and swinging though the trees. The locomotion of the Gibbon is one of the most interesting species of primates due to its agility and extensive arms.

CHIMPANZEE: 

The home of the Chimpanzee ranges far and wide, from the Atlantic Ocean to Lake Tanganyika around the equatorial region of Africa. This environment varies greatly and contains trees and scarce open land.

The Chimpanzee is made for both walking on the earth’s floor and spending time in the trees as well. Their arms are longer than their legs and walk on their knuckles; a special type of quadrupedalism. They walk on their knuckles because their arms are longer than their legs and it supports the weight of their upper body on the bent fingers better than if they walked flat on their palms like some primates do. Only bonobos, and gorillas use this type of locomotion besides the Chimpanzee. 
Due to the fact that this primate, the Chimpanzee, is a heavier built, wider-set primate than most and it walks on the ground, it has had to adapt to its physical structure by bending its fingers under its hand to walk on. Its environment also consists of both trees and land so it has had to evolve in a way to suit both. The Chimpanzee can hang from trees but it can also walk on all fours. 
Chimpanzees live in a variety of places but mostly around the African continent. The environment it lives in greatly affects the way the primate has evolved over time. Locomotion is one of the most important traits a species has and they all vary greatly depending on its environment and lifestyle. The Chimpanzee has a stable lumbar spine and arms that are longer in length than its hind limbs and reduced thumbs. They move from place to place by walking on all four limbs but they also use brachiation, inheriting these arm swinging characteristics from brachiating or climbing ancestors.

http://www.globio.org/glossopedia/article.aspx?art_id=49
http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/spider-monkey/
http://www.outtoafrica.nl/animals/engbaboon.html
http://www.gibboncenter.org/about_gibbons.htm

Homologies and Analogies

Homologous Traits

a.) Humans use their limbs to do just about everything. Our arms are very important for everyday tasks and jobs. When it comes to the bat, their wings are just as important. They need their wings for locomotion so they can survive just as we need our arms and hands so we can survive.

b.) The homologous trait of the human and the bat are the two upper limbs, the arms for the human and the wings for the bat. While both are very similar in structure, they have very different functions. The human arm and hand have five fingers, an elbow, wrist and shoulder joint. All of which allowing more flexibility and variation for using it to eat, walk, and do everyday tasks. The bat’s wing also has five “fingers” and joints in the same position and location as the human hand. While the human uses its arms for everyday things, the bat uses its wings to fly.

c.) The common ancestor of the human and the bat could have been a prehistoric creature like a dinosaur or reptile because these creatures possessed limbs very similar in structure. We know that early reptiles possessed this homologous trait because of fossils and skeleton findings done by scientists. 

d.)

Analogous Traits

a.) The Koala uses its sharp claws to climb and hang from tall Eucalyptus trees all day. The Kangaroo can jump up to 40 feet in one leap and can sustain a speed of 40km/hr. How are these two animals similar and how do they care for their young while undergoing these extreme acts?

b.) Both known as marsupials, the Koala and the Kangaroo share an analogous trait. The trait is the pouch they both share on their stomach.  The young for Koalas and the Kangaroos are both called “Joeys” and when they are born, they are bald, blind, and deaf. They make their way up into the pouch on the stomach of their mother and live there for about six months drinking their mother’s milk. The pouch that these two species both have function in protecting and caring for their young while keeping them close at all times.  This analogous trait shows us that these two species, while very different have similarities in their nature for caring for their young.

c.) I believe their common ancestor could have possessed this analogous trait. On the hand, however, I also believe that these two species could have evolved and acquired the pouch on their belly due to more predators and environmental changes.

d.)

 

Protein Synthesis

CUGAATACATTCTGTGGGCATTGCCATGCAGTGTCTGAATCTTGCAA

Good luck! 

Historical Influences on Darwin

Jean-Baptist Lamark was, I believe, one of the most influential scientists of Darwin and his development of his theory of Natural selection.

Lamark and Darwin had very different beliefs about evolution. Lamark believed that organisms had to change their behavior based on the changing environment. One of his examples was that giraffes used to have shorter necks than they do now but over time their necks grew longer because they were constantly have to reach and stretch out for food. While Lamark believed in spontaneous generation, Darwin believed in natural selection and that generations adapted to their surroundings but not by changing physically, but by passing those traits to their offspring. He believed that “species could go extinct rather than change into new forms”.  

Charles Darwin and Jean-Baptist Lamark had very different views but Lamark really influenced Darwin. Darwin was able to see Lamark’s work and provide his own ideas based off of that. It helped him to prove himself and come up with his own ideas that were completely different yet having similar concepts. Here is a link I used: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/history_09

One point stated in the outline “In order for traits to evolve and change, they MUST be heritable”. Both scientists believed this. Lamark and Darwin both believed that species changed or had to adapt according to the environment and that the offspring would have to inherit these traits as well.  

Every scientist that influenced Darwin helped him to come up with his theories and beliefs. Without their thoughts, bodies of works or experiments, there may not have been a belief of Natural selection by the famous Charles Darwin. Even though Lamark and Darwin had very different views, they helped to shape each other and their beliefs. Without disagreements, there would be no differences.

“The growing fear of evolutionary ideas led many to believe that if these ideas were generally accepted, ‘the Church would crash, the moral fabric of society would be torn apart, and civilized man would return to savagery’ (Desmond and Moore, 1991, p. 34)”. This quote from the book suggests that many proponents of evolution were anti-Christian, but Darwin went to Christ’s College Cambridge and it was there that he acquired his interests in natural science. Therefore, influencing his book, On the Origin of Species.